JJT469 M26E4

I

H I S T 0

OF

M A D A G A

SCAR.

COMPRISING ALSO

THE PROGRESS OF THE CHRISTIAN MISSION ESTABLISHED IN 1818; AND AN AUTHENTIC ACCOUNT OF THE PERSECUTION AND RECENT MARTYRDOM OF THE NATIVE CHRISTIANS.

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BY THE REV. WILLIAM ELLIS.

Foreign Secretary to the London Missionary Society.

" TELL THE QUEEN OF MADAGASCAR FROM ME, THAT SHE CAN DO NOTHING SO BENE- FICIAL FOR HER COUNTRY AS TO RECEIVE THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION."

Queen Adelaide to the Embassy from Madagascar.

IN TWO VOLUMES.

VOL. h

FISHER, SON, & CO. ' NEWGATE- STREET, LONDON; QUAI DE L'ECOLE, PARIS.

PREFACE.

The materials for a large portion of the following- work, were collected by the Missionaries in the island to which it relates, and forwarded to this country in the year 1830. It was then intended to pre- sent chiefly a history of the Protestant Mission in Madagascar, from its commencement in 1818, to the decease of Radama in 1828. This, it was pro- posed, to accompany by a description of the most remarkable customs of the Malagasy, biographical notices of the late king, and other distinguished per- sonages ; and an account of the abolition of the slave- trade in the island. When the documents were exa- mined by the Directors of the London Missionary Society, to whom they were sent, it appeared desir- able to extend the plan of the work, by including the history of the island from its discovery, to a later date than 1828 ; and early in 1833, I was requested

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PREFACE.

to prepare the work for publication, adding such information as could be obtained from publications in this country — correspondence with the Missionaries — and the papers in the possession of the London Mis- sionary Society.

Shortly after the period now referred to, circum- stances occurring in Madagascar which rendered it expedient to postpone for a time the publication of the history, its preparation for the press was sus- pended ; and although a very strong desire for infor- mation respecting the country and the people has been manifested, the delay that has taken place is the less to be regretted, as the work has been ren- dered more complete than it could have been, if pub- lished at any earlier period.

By the kindness of the Right Honourable Lord Glenelg, Her Majesty's Principal Secretary of State for the Colonies, access has been obligingly granted to the voluminous and peculiarly interesting MS. jour- nals of James Hastie, Esq., by whom the treaty for the abolition of the slave-trade was negociated, and who was, for many years, British agent at the capital of Madagascar.

In the early part of the work, the writings of Flacourt, Rochon, the narrative of Drury, and the life of Benyowsky, the History by Copland, as well as other works, have been used. Much valuable

PREFACE.

V

information has also been obtained from the island, in answer to specific inquiries sent to the Mis- sionaries. Several of these, namely, Messrs. Jones, Griffiths, and Baker, have also visited England since the preparation of the work was commenced, and have readily furnished information, which has enabled me to enlarge and modify many of the original state- ments. Mr. Freeman has also cheerfully supplied much useful information respecting the recent his- tory of the country, and has prepared a valuable paper on the native language, which is given as an Appendix to the first volume. The embellishments are chiefly from sketches taken on the spot, or from articles brought to this country ; the outline of the map is copied from that published after the recent survey by Commodore Owen ; and the names of places and persons are given by the Missionaries, or taken from other authorities.

To the distinguished nobleman to whom I am indebted for access to the documents in the Colonial Office, to Captain Moorsom, R.N., to the Author of " The Loss of the Winterton," and the Missionary Brethren who have rendered me valuable assist- ance in the preparation of the work, I would thus publicly acknowledge my obligations, especially to the Rev. J. J. Freeman, who, in order to aid in securing the greatest possible accuracy, has kindly

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PREFACE.

inspected the following pages as they have passed through the press.

The history of Madagascar is, in many respects, highly instructive. It exhibits a branch of that sin- gular and widely-scattered race inhabiting chiefly the coasts and islands of South-eastern Asia ; preserv- ing in their language, and many of their customs, unequivocal signs of identity, yet dwelling at a dis- tance from the Malayan archipelago, or the groups of Polynesia, greater than, without the strongest evi- dence, we should have believed it possible for them to reach. It shows an interesting portion of the human family, gradually emerging from the ignorance and rudeness which characterise the earliest stages of society, exhibiting the intelligence and energy, and acquiring the comforts, of a civilized state. It further shows a people, with scarcely a single exception, friendly and hospitable to their visiters, until goaded to outrage and violence by ill-treatment, or rendered more corrupt than they were before, by the vicious influence and example of their visiters.

The work will also encourage the philanthropist in his career of undaunted and persevering benevolence, by exhibiting the success with which the iniquitous traffic in human beings had been prohibited, in what was once one of the most frequented slave-markets in the world.

PREFACE.

vii

Beyond these, and other points of deep and lasting interest, these volumes supply a faithful record of the means employed for introducing among five millions of our species, a written language, a knowledge of the use of letters, of some of the useful arts of civi- lized life, and an acquaintance with the sacred truths of Divine Revelation. The measure of visible success, which for a time attended these efforts, and the melancholy reverses they have recently experienced, with the fierce and destructive persecution which has lately burst forth, and raged with such fearful violence in Madagascar, have excited deep and gene- ral interest throughout our country. An account of this persecution — which continues to rage against the native Christians, from whose numbers, there is rea- son to fear, additions are still made to the noble army of martyrs who have sealed their testimony with their blood — will be found in these volumes, recorded with greater explicitness than in the state- ments hitherto made public.

I have availed myself, as far as practicable, of every means within my reach for rendering the work acceptable and useful to all interested in the history and prospects of Madagascar ; with very few excep- tions, the whole has been re-written, and arranged in the order in which it now appears, and will, it is hoped, not only be found a faithful record of the

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PREFACE.

events it narrates, and the scenes it describes, but excite deep interest, and stimulate to fervent prayer on behalf of the church in the midst of flames, and the nation in the present crisis of its history; and excite more ardent desires, that in Madagascar, and every other portion of the heathen world, the Gospel may have free course, and be glorified, until the earth shall be full of the knowledge of the Lord, as the waters cover the sea.

WILLIAM ELLIS.

Pentonville, October 10th, 1838.

CONTENTS OF VOL. I.

CHAP. I.

Geographical situation of Madagascar — Period of discovery — Extent — Earliest visitors — Names by which the island is designated by the natives — Import of native names — Description of the island by early visitors — Geological features of Madagascar — Minerals : copper, silver, iron, rock-salt, nitre, plumbago — General appearance of the country — Elevation of the principal mountains — Account of the appearance, struc- ture, and peculiarities of the Ankaratra range of mountains — Number, situation, appearance, and extent of the lakes, rivers, springs, mineral waters — Description of the saline springs at Mandrovy, and the adjacent scenery in the Betsileo country 1

CHAP. II.

Climate of Madagascar — Fluctuations in the temperature of the atmosphere — Insalubrity of the greater part of the sea-coast — Healthiness of the interior — The Malagasy year — Periodical rains — Number and names of the months — The seasons of the Malagasy year ; import of their designations — Thunder and lightning — Water-spouts — Whirlwinds — Meteors — Variety and fertility of the soil — Productions — Forests — Trees and plants, indigenous and exotic — Honey and gums — Birds, native and foreign — Fable of the birds choosing a king — Wild and tame quadrupeds — Fishes : efforts to obtain a supply for the capital — Amphibious animals — Account of the crocodiles ; peculiar habits of the animal — Sagacity of the dog — Fable of the serpent, the crocodile, and the dog — Superstition of the natives respecting the crocodile — Insects and reptiles 27

CHAP. III.

Provinces of Madagascar : their number, designations, import of the names of the twenty-two provinces of the island ; their boundaries, extent, and peculiarities — Early French settlements in Madagascar — Isle of St. Mary's — Character and history of its former inhabitants — The suppression of piracy carried on from the island — Foule Point — Port and town of Tama- tave — The importance of the commerce of the island — The country of the Betanimena — Culture of the mulberry ; introduction of silkworms — Brigands : nature of their retreats in the forests and caverns of the interior — Peculiar insalubrity of the southern coast — Fertility and scenery of the celebrated vale of Ambolo — Fort Dauphin — Country in the neigh- bourhood of St. Angustine bay — Extent and peculiarities of the chief subdivisions — The Betsileo country — Provinces of the Sakalavas — The lake Imania — Barbarity of the inhabitants of Ambongo — The lake Anosy — Natural beauty of the province of Ankay ; superstition of its inhabit- ants— The river Mangoro 61

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CONTENTS.

CHAP. IV.

Province of Ankova — Meaning of the name — The chief divisions of the province Imerina — Its general aspect — Elevation of its mountains — Relics of antiquity — Objects of superstitious veneration — Salubrity of Ankova — Produce of the country — Subdivisions or clans, Voro-mahery, Imamo> Vonizongo — Tomb of Rapeto — Peculiarities of the inhabitants of Ankova — Account of Tananarivo, the capital of the island— Its geographical situation— Its elevation above the level of the sea — Import of the name — Population of Tananarivo — Dwellings of the people — Construction of their houses — Divisions in the capital — Public thoroughfares — The palace — The silver house — The throne of the kingdom — Site of the tombs of the reigning family — Antsahatsiroa, place of public assembly — The Tarpeian rock of Tananarivo — The several places of execution — Market — Central school and chapel — Mission buildings — Burial-ground for strangers — Country residences of the king — State of the public roads — Remains of ancient fortifications 82

CHAP. V.

Population of Madagascar — Its probable amount — The chief political divi- sions of the people, and the estimated number of each division — Dispro- portion of population to the extent and resources of the country— General description of the Malagasy — Description of the several races in the island — Their respective provinces — The Hovas ; import of the term ; their figure, colour, number, &c. — The Vazimba, or probable aborigines of Madagascar — The Kimois, or nation of dwarfs — The Sakalavas ; their character, colour, habits, &c. — The Bezanozano and the Antsianaka — The north and south Betsileo — The Betsimisaraka and Betanimena ; their stature, complexion, &c. — The inhabitants of the Isle of St. Mary's — The Zafindramina, or descendants of the mother of Mahomet — Probable origin of the distinct races in the island — Intellectual character of the people — Moral qualities of the Malagasy— Their general disregard of truth, &c- — Baneful influence of superstition 113

CHAP. VI.

Manners and customs of the Malagasy — Their general uniformity through- out the different tribes — Observances connected with the birth of children — Attentions shewn to the mother — Ceremonies observed on first taking the infant out of the house — Employment of the sikidy to ascertain its destiny — Proportion of the sexes — Practice of scrambling — Bestowment of names — Fearful prevalence of infanticide — Motives to its perpetration — Means by which it is effected — Circumstances in which it differs from the infant-murder formerly practised by the South Sea Islanders — Fond- ness of parents for the children that are spared — Amusements of child- hood— Occupations of youth — The custom of betrothing — Ages at which marriages are celebrated — Ceremonies observed — Parties between whom marriage is prohibited — Polygamy; its extent and disastrous effects — Divorce ; its frequency — Usual mode of proceeding in divorce — Disposal of the children — Degraded condition of the female sex 145

CONTENTS.

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CHAP. VII.

The rite of circumcision — Appointment of the time for its observance — Consecration of the vessel for the holy water — Procession for bringing the holy water and other requisites for the ceremony — Bull-baiting and other amusements at the festival — Platting of baskets — Slaughter of a sheep— Measuring the children — Planting the banana stem — Benedictions pronounced on the children — Public addresses delivered to them — The faditra, or offering to bear away evil — The strong water — Slaughter of the red bullock — The father's address to the son while the rite is per- forming— Conduct of the mothers on the occasion — Feasting at the close of the ceremonies — The custom of forming brotherhoods by drinking of blood — Parties who thus enter into solemn covenant — Symbols used — Form of oath or engagement — The mouth of the heart — The drinking of each other's blood — Extent to which the engagement is binding — Exist- ence of a similar custom in Borneo — Nature and operations of slavery — Hard lot of the slave-mother — Mode of redemption from slavery— Bonds- men of the government — Hospitality of Madagascar 176

CHAP. VIII.

Facility with which the means of subsistence are obtained in Madagascar — Different kinds of food — Flesh of the ox, sheep, and goat, monkeys, and hedgehogs — Poultry — Fish — Eggs of the crocodile — Locusts and grass- hoppers— Silkworms in their chrysalis state — Vegetables and grain — Rice, maize, manioc, arrow-root, yams, sweet potatoes, &c. — Additions to the above by the introduction of European vegetables — Increasing use of the Irish potato — Fruits — Pineapples, grapes, oranges, peaches, citrons, lemons, &c— Manufacture of bread — Methods of dressing their food — Rice-boiling — Cooking of meat — Limitation of the number of meals in a day — Custom of washing the hands before meals — Manner of taking food — Beverage of the people— Distillation by foreigners — By natives — Uses of tobacco — Expedients used in preparing Malagasy snuff — General mode of taking snuff by the mouth — Intoxicating quality of the native hemp — Longevity of the natives — Number and nature of diseases — The Malagasy fever : its symptoms, progress, European and native remedies — State of the healing art among the natives — Supposed origin of diseases — Cures attempted only by divination — Native medicines — Use of the vapour bath — Of cold bathing — Superstitious observances — The Malagasy god of medicine 200

CHAP IX.

Practice of surgery among the natives — Method of treating wounds and fractures — Tooth-drawing — Native mode of cupping — Bleeding — Anec- dote of Radama — Feast on occasion of his recovery — Treatment of the sick in general — Influence of divination in the selection of means of reco- very— The faditra, or offering to remove pollution — The sorona, or sup- plicatory offering — Usages in reference to death — Mourning — Addresses to the deceased — Watching the corpse — Presents of money to the chief mourner — Method of disposing of the body— Manner of interment — Cus-

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CONTENTS.

toms at funerals in the southern part of the island, described by Drury — Property deposited in the tombs— Imagined pollution from touching a corpse — Badges of mourning — Period of its duration — The manao afana, or slaughter of bullocks, to avert evil from the deceased — Criminals not allowed the rite of burial — Places of sepulture' — Size and nature of their tombs — Costly and gorgeous ceremonies of mourning on occasion of the death of Radama ; description of his coffin of silver, mausoleum, &c ; money buried with him ; number of cattle slain — Cenotaphs — Singular custom of bringing home to the family the bones of those slain in war — Monumental pillars 226

CHAP. X.

Native expressions of thankfulness — Different forms of salutation — Customs observed on the return of the sovereign to the capital — Prevalence of common swearing among the natives — Their use of abusive language — Amusements of the Malagasy — Smoking — Feasting — Hunting wild cattle — Description of the mode of taking wild cattle, by Drury — Hunting the wild boar — Fishing — Mode of catching the crocodile — Games at kicking — Throwing at the target — The katra or drafts — Musical instruments — The lokanga and valiha, drums, fifes — Singing, Character of the songs — Specimens of native poetry — Song for the dead — Dress of the Malagasy — Materials of which it is composed — Manner of wearing it — The salaka — The kitamby — The lamba or mantle — Different kinds of lamba manu- factured by the natives — Coverings for the head — Native sandals — Articles of foreign manufacture used as clothing in Madagascar — Fond- ness of the natives for ornaments — Silver chains — Silver rings, beads, shells— Ornaments, of ivory — Artificial flowers — Perfumes, native and foreign — Ornamenting the body with scars — Mode of dressing the hair — The European mode of wearing the hair, introduced by Radama — Tragi- cal occurrence among the native females in consequence of the innova- tion 257

CHAP. XI.

Occupations of the Malagasy — Division of labour — Professional employ- ments— The judges — Officers of the palace — Head-men or elders — Extent to which offices are hereditary — General division of the people into freemen, peasantry, and soldiers — Native farming — Culture of rice — Pre- paration of the soil — Sowing and transplanting the grain — Modes of irri- gation— General appearance of the country immediately before harvest — Quality of the grain — Causes of the occasional failure in the crop — Reaping — Manner of thrashing — Storing the grain — Description of the granaries or rice-houses in different parts of the country — Culture of the manioc — Period required for its growth — Extent to which it is used — Failure of attempts to introduce European modes of agriculture — Rearing of silkworms — Native methods of manufacturing iron — Situation and character of the mines — Manner of getting and preparing the ore — Description of the Malagasy furnace, bellows, &c— Nature of the fuel- Process of smelting— Native blacksmiths— -Native forge, tools, and articles

CONTENTS.

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of native manufacture — Introduction of the art of shoeing horses — Arrival of Mr. Chick from England — Astonishment of the natives at beholding the apparatus of an English forge, and the strength of Mr. Chick — Trials of strength between the natives and Europeans — Improvements in the art of working iron, manufacturing cutlery, and wire-drawing — Native gold and silver smiths 290

CHAP. XII.

Felling of timber — Number of persons constantly employed as woodcutters — Amount of labour required to convey the timber to the capital — Native coolies, or bearers of burdens — Method of splitting trees for planks or boards — Introduction of the use of the saw — Native Carpenters — Charac- ter of their work — Masonry in Madagascar — Native potteries — Articles manufactured — Native kilns — Anecdote of Radama — Introduction of brick- making — Malagasy rope-making, twine- spinning, and basket-making — Introduction of the art of tanning — Immense quantity of hides provided by the government — Native methods of spinning and weaving — Simplicity of the Malagasy loom — Excellence of the native cloths — Preparation of indigo — Methods of Dyeing — Domestic occupations of a day in Madagas- car— Native hawkers or pedlars — Fondness of the Malagasy for traffic — Native markets — Number, designation, order, &c — Prices of articles — Money-changers — Table of moneys — Value of labour — Foreign commerce — Chief exports and imports 315

CHAP. XIII.

Government of Madagascar; monarchical and military — Extent to which the will of the sovereign is absolute — Instance of personal devotedness to the sovereign — Duties of the sovereign — Importance attached to heredi- tary rank — Gradations in rank — Members of the royal family — Civil and military officers — The king's household — Native police — Number and dignity of honours connected with the public service — Nature of ancient military tactics and fortifications — Formation of the army after the European model — Military punishment of burning — Employment of singing women during a campaign — Revenue of Madagascar — Enumera- tion of the sources whence it is derived — Veneration of the natives for the popular traditions and usages supposed to be derived from the prac- tice of their ancestors — Combination of the regal and sacerdotal character in the person of the sovereign — National festivals — The feast of the new vear — Description of the ceremonies observed — Benedictions pronounced — Number of the cattle slaughtered at the feast — Modes of administering the oath of allegiance — Animals slaughtered on the occasion — Formation of new laws — Proclamations and edicts — Different modes of punishment : spearing, beheading, crucifixion, burning alive, flogging to death, fines, banishment, or reduction to slavery — The sovereign's decision final — Operation of native laws on foreigners — National councils — Office and duties of the judges — Public mode of conducting trials — Code of laws promulgated by the present queen in the year 18*28 341

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CONTENTS.

CHAP. XIV.

Extensive prevalence of superstition among the Malagasy — Their general belief in the power of charms and frequent use of divination — Mythology of the Malagasy — Indefinite ideas of God, of the human soul, and a future state — Defective sense of moral responsibility — Worship of tutelary gods — Imagined sacredness of the villages in which the idols are kept — The idol-keepers — Bearers of the idols in public processions — Origin and appearance of the national and household idols — Homage paid to them by the people — Means used in rendering articles otherwise common objects of superstitious worship — Temples — Sacred stones — Sacrifices — Appeals to idols in the administration of oaths and the ordeals — Names of the principal idols — Their supposed antipathies — Anecdotes illustra- tive of the deceptive pretences of the keepers of the idols — Exposure of their deceptions by Radama — Public exhibition of the idols — Visit of Radama to the supposed residence of the idols — Import of the names of the idol 387

CHAP. XV.

Unfavourable operation of the superstitious opinions of the Malagasy — Restrictions imposed by the idols at particular times and seasons — Differ- ent kinds of sacrifices — Localities in which they are offered — Description of the ceremony of sprinkling the people in the presence of the idols — Usages observed in sacrificing an ox — The offering of human sacrifices — The faditra, or means employed to remove diseases and other evils — The afana, or ceremony performed at the tombs as a means of securing repose for the dead — Account of the vazimba, their graves, altars, anecdotes illustrative of the popular belief respecting them — Influence of fear on the minds of the natives — Ideas of the Malagasy respecting a future state — Reported appearance of the ghost of Radama — General belief in the dominion of supernatural beings — Reported origin of divination — Universal confidence of the people in its decisions — Various modes of working the sikidy— Offering charms — The soronaand faditra — Influence of witchcraft, prognostications, &c 416

CHAP. XVI.

Tables or rules framed by the diviners for working the sikidy with beans — Explanation of the mode of divining by means of the foregoing tables or rules — Divination also practised with sand — Astrology of the Malagasy — Pretended means of ascertaining fortunate and unfortunate days— Calcu- lating the destiny of individuals — Supposed Arabian origin of astrology and divination among the Malagasy — Names of the moons or months — Division of each moon or month — Diagram of the months by which des- tinies are calculated, or events foretold — Difference of the calendars used on the coast and in the interior — Manner of calculating time — Means by which it is pretended individual destiny is ascertained 439

CONTENTS.

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CHAP. XVII.

Trial by ordeal in Madagascar — Uncertainty respecting its origin — Various modes practised in different parts of the island — General use of the tan- gena — Description of the fruit — Cases in which the tangena is employed — Manner of preferring an accusation among the inhabitants of the inte- rior— Preparations for drinking the poison — Translation of the invocation or curse used in its administration — Copious use of rice-water — Appear- ance regarded as indicating innocence or guilt — Summary death in case of the latter — Ceremonies attending an acquittal — Mode and effects of administering the poison-water on the coast — Cases in which it is ad- ministered to animals and fowls — Motives by which the natives are induced to employ it — Anecdotes illustrating the fallacy of its decisions — Probable number destroyed by the poison — Notice of witchcraft among the Malagasy — Singular instance of its influence recorded by Drury — General dread of sorcery — Terrible death inflicted on those supposed to be guilty of it 458

Appendix — Malagasy Language

491

ILLUSTRATIONS.

VOL. I.

PAGE

Portrait of Rafaralahy Frontispiece.

Map of Madagascar 1

Woodcutters' Huts 35

Cattle-feeding 46

Plan of the Capital 92

Head of the chief officer in the Embassy to Europe in 1835 116

Head of another member of the Embassy 117

A native Village 124

Rice-beating, and Gathering and Winnowing Locusts 203

Rice-plate and Pedestal 208

Method of washing the hands and mouth after meals 209

A Malagasy Burial Ground 245

A Family Sepulchre 247

Musical Instruments 373

Mode of thrashing Rice 300

Rice Granaries 302

Iron-smelting 308

Malagasy Loom, &c 326

Tanghinia Veneniflua (Tangena) 461

Procession of Madio 475

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

CHAPTER I.

Geographical situation of Madagascar — Period of Discovery — Extent — Earliest visitors — Names by vrhich the island is designated by the Natives — Import of Native Names — Description of the island by early visitors — Geological features of Madagascar — Minerals: copper, silver, iron, rock-salt, nitre, plumbago — General appearance of the country — Elevation of the principal mountains — Account of the appear- ance, structure, and peculiarities of the Ankaratra range of mountains — Number, situation, appearance, and extent of the lakes, rivers, springs, mineral waters — Description of the saline springs at Mandrovy, and the adjacent scenery in the Betsileo country.

Madagascar, the Great Britain of Africa, and one of the largest islands in the world, is situated in the Indian, or Eastern Ocean, and is the principal island in the group usually designated the Ethiopian Archipelago. It is sepa- rated from the eastern coast of Africa by the Mozambique Channel, which is about 150 leagues across, though the nearest point of Madagascar, Cape Manambaho, is not more than 90 or 100 leagues from the opposite continent. East India ships, especially those bound to Bombay, fre- quently pass through the channel, and, when in want of provisions, usually resort to St. Augustine's Bay, which is on the south-eastern shore of the island, being situated in latitude 23° S. and long. 40° E. The distance between the

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HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

Cape of Good Hope and Madagascar, is about 600 leagues : from Mauritius it is 186 leagues distant; and from the Isle of Bourbon, 150.

From Cape Amber, or Ambro, its northern extremity, situated in lat. 25° 40' S., Madagascar extends southward, about 900 miles, to Cape St. Mary, its southern point, which is in S. lat 12° 2'. The breadth of the southern part of the island is about 300 miles ; the northern portion is narrow, and it is widest in the centre, where it is about 400 miles broad. It has been estimated to contain two hundred millions of acres of land, but one hundred andfifty millions would probably be a more accurate computation.

Madagascar is said to have been discovered by Europeans in the year 1506; it was shortly afterwards visited by Tristan d'Acunha.

By the Portuguese it was called the island of St. Law- rence, either in honour of its discoverer, Lawrence Almeida, or, as stated by early writers, in accordance with a custom prevailing among them, in honour of the saint on whose day in the calendar it was first seen. The French, during the reign of Henry IV., called it Isle Dauphine.

The island had, however, for a long period previously, been known to the Moors and Arabs, who have visited its western shores for the purpose of trade. By them it was called Serandah, and not Serandib, as stated by Rochon, which there is every reason to believe was the name they gave to Ceylon.* The inhabitants of Europe had also been previously made acquainted with its existence by the accounts of Marco Paulo, whose travels were published in the close of the 13th century. By the last mentioned tra- veller the island was -called Magaster.

* See D'Herbelot's Bib. Orient.

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

3

The word Madagascar is of uncertain import ; and its use, to designate the island, appears to be of foreign rather than native origin. The inhabitants appear to be acquainted with it only as the designation .given by strangers to their country. The natives themselves have no distinct specific names for the whole of their island. By those who reside on the coast it is sometimes called Nosindambo, " island of wild hogs,'' from the number of these animals found in the country. In speaking of their country, the Madegasse usually name the several provinces respectively, or, if they have occasion to speak of the whole, some kind of periphrasis is employed, as, Izao rehetra izao, " All this entirely;" Izao tontolo izao, "this whole;" Ni tany rehetra, " all this country ;" or, as expressions still more emphatic, Izao ambany lanitra, " this beneath the skies;" Ambany tany ambany lanitra, " upon the earth, and be- neath the skies.'' A familiar expression for the whole island, is, also, Ny, anivony ny riaka, signifying, literally, u The, in the midst of the flood," " that which is surrounded by water," " island.'' * This name, however, though an appropriate term for " island," is applied by the natives to Madagascar only. The usual word for " island," in the native language, is, nosy, as, Nosy Ibrahim, " Isle of St. Mary."

The descriptions which different writers have given of Madagascar have been various, and, in many respects, dis- similar. In general, the representations of its productions, salubrity, and resources have been such as the hopes of its visitors have been led to desire, rather than such as their observations have fully authorized them to make. In the

* Tompony ny anivony ny riaka, " sovereign of the island." This expres- sion as descriptive of the extent of the sovereignty claimed by the late king Radama, was placed on his tomb.

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4

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

sixteenth century, the Dutch thus write : " The riches of this island are great, abounding in rice, honey, wax, cotton, lemons, cloves," &c. The French draw a far more splendid picture : M. de Modeve, in his Memoir respecting the island of Madagascar, remarks, " Les objets que Ton peut tirer de Madagascar sont varies a l'infini, cette ile reunit les productions des deux zones; elle peut fournir abondam- ment au commerce de l'Asie et de PEurope, le coton, la soie, les gommes, tous les raisins, l'ambre gris, l'ebenne, le bois de teinture, le chanvre, le lin, le meilleure fer, tous les metaux, meme de Tor (!) ; on peut y fabriquer plus utilement que partout ailleurs, toutes les etoffes de Flnde." The prize, as thus announced, certainly looks tempting, but it has never yet answered the eager expectations of adventurers.

Highly coloured as the above may appear, our own coun- trymen have shewn themselves equally capable of appre- ciating its excellencies, and exhibiting its beauties and its worth. Mr. Richard Boothby, a merchant of London, who visited Madagascar about the beginning of the seventeenth century, and published his account in 1644, after describing its soil, productions, &c, adds, " And, without all question, this country far transcends and exceeds all other countries in Asia, Africa, and America, planted by English, French, Dutch, Portuguese, and Spanish ; and it is likely to prove of far greater value and esteem to any Christian prince and nation that shall plant and settle a sure habitation therein, than the West Indies are to the king and kingdom of Spain ; and it may well be compared to the land of Canaan, that flows with milk and honey ; a little world of itself, adjoining to no other land within the compass of many leagues or miles ; or the chief paradise this day upon earth." In another place, after having again spoken of its resources, he adds,

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

5

w In further commendation thereof, I will take the liberty of extolling it, I hope without offence, as Moses did the land of Canaan : ' It is a good land, a land in which rivers of waters and fountains spring out of the vallies and moun- tains: a land of wheat and barley, of vineyards, of fig- trees and pomegranates : a land wherein thou shalt eat without scarcity, neither shalt lack anything therein: a land whose stones are iron, and out of whose mountains thou mayest dig brass.' " *

The geological features of the country are distinct and prominent; and although hitherto but very partially exa- mined, present considerable variety. The greater part of the island exhibits primitive formations, chiefly granite, sienite, and blocks of exceedingly pure quartz; some- times large pieces of beautifully-coloured rose-quartz are met with ; the white kind is used by the natives to orna- ment the summits of their tombs; cyst, intersected by broad veins of quartz, and a substance resembling grey wacke or whinstone, is frequently seen. Many of the formations are of clay-slate ; and a valuable kind of slate, suitable for roofing and writing upon, has been discovered in the Betsileo country, at about a hundred miles from the capital. Silex and chert, with beautiful formations of chalcedony, primitive limestone, including some valuable specimens of marble, with different kinds of sandstone, are also met with. Finely-crystallized schorls frequently occur in the Betsileo country, where, embedded in lime- stone, apparently of fresh-water formation, specimens of fossils, including serpents, lizards, cameleons, with different kinds of vegetable fossils, have been found.

No subterranean fires are known to be at present in active or visible operation; yet in some sections of the * Osborne's Voyages, Vol. ii. p. 634.

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HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

country, especially in the Betsileo province, indications of volcanic action frequently occur, and are strongly marked. Many of the rocks, for several miles together, are com- posed of homogeneous earthy lava ; scoria and pumice are also occasionally discovered, and some of the lavas abound with finely-formed crystals of olivine.

Besides the primitive and transition formations, and the rocks of volcanic origin, there are large beds of clay, and extensive tracts of soil composed of ferruginous earth and disintegrated lava, rich alluvial deposits, and vegetable mould. Some of the geological specimens brought home to this country are evidently carbonaceous, and would favour the expectation that there are coal formations in some parts of the island. Limestone has not yet been discovered in the eastern part of Madagascar ; but coral is abundant on the coast, and furnishes the inhabitants with excellent lime.

Our acquaintance with the minerals of Madagascar, though exceedingly limited and partial, is, as far as it extends, highly satisfactory. If the diamond, and other costly gems, have not yet been discovered in its mines, and if its bowels have not yielded the precious metal by which the new world inflamed the avarice of the inhabitants of the old, and doomed its own unoffending and aboriginal occu- pants, first, to a merciless bondage, and, finally, to annihi- lation; Madagascar is already proved to be rich in the minerals most useful to man. Silver and copper have been stated by early visitors to exist in certain portions of the island : the latter is frequently visible in specimens found in the country, and brought to England ; and it is still reported by the natives that the former has been obtained. Mr. Boothby, indeed, refers to gold brought from this country : for after observing, " This gallant island of Mada- gascar affords these several rich commodities," which he

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

enumerates, concluding with gold; he further states, "the old Earl of Denbigh brought home from this island of Madagascar, gold sand, which he presented to the king's majesty and the council-board ; and I was at the council- board when this gold sand was in question, and approved of." Had this been correct, it is not likely that the circum- stance would have been lost sight of, far more vigorous efforts would certainly have been made to discover this precious metal. The gold sand in question was, in all probability, brought from the adjacent coast of Africa. However this may be, iron ore, a mineral to a nation in the infancy of its civilization far more valuable than gold, has been found so rich and abundant as to be rendered avail- able to the natives, by a rude and simple process of smelt- ing, for almost every purpose for which it is at present required. A great part of the interior district of Ankova abounds with iron. Its quality is good, but the want of coal, which has hitherto been sought for in vain, renders the smelting of it difficult In the district of Iraamo, which lies to the west of the capital, great quantities of iron ore, in a very perfect state, are found on the surface of the ground: the portion of iron is so large in some ore, as perhaps to have occasioned the remark in Rochon, a remark which is certainly not warranted by facts, that native steel is found in Madagascar. The iron in the mountain of Ambohimiangavo is so abundant, that it is called by the natives, " iron-mountain."

Rock-salt is found near the coast, and nitre has been met with ; and also, abundance of pyrites, yielding a valuable per centage of sulphur. The nitre appears like hoar-frost on the surface of embankments, and other pro- jecting parts of the ground, and is called by the people, sir a tan y, salt of the earth : it is not, however, plentiful*

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HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

Under the superintendence of Mr. Cameron, one of the missionary artisans, measures were taken a few years ago, for obtaining, by artificial means, a larger supply of this useful article. Oxide of manganese has been found about fifty miles south-west of the capital. A substance resem- bling plumbago, or black lead, is found in great abundance in some parts of the island, and is used by the natives to colour, and polish, or glaze many of their rude articles of domestic use. Several kinds of ochre, or coloured earth, have been found,* some of which are used in colouring the outsides of buildings, &c.

The country next the shore, with the exception of the south-eastern coast in the neighbourhood of Fort Dauphin, is flat and exceedingly low. Some parts are apparently below the level of the ocean, and, consequently, marshy and incapable of culture. This margin of comparatively level soil, consisting of rich meadow-land, or rice-grounds, extends on the eastern coast from ten to fifty miles in breadth ; on the western side of the island it is from fifty to one hundred wide, and occasionally extends still farther towards the interior. In some parts of the eastern coast, the country becomes suddenly mountainous at the distance of about thirty miles from the sea. Within the level border, the whole country, with the exception of part of the Betsileo and Sakalava districts, is diversified with hills of varied elevations, and extending in every direction.

In some parts of the island, immense plains stretch, in comparatively cheerless solitude, over a wide extent of country ; and at distant points, in varied directions, a small spot is all that appears under cultivation. Thus, for

* The Rev. J. J. Freeman has recently brought to this country a valuable collection of the minerals, &c. of Madagascar, specimens of which are deposited in the Missionary Museum, Blomfield-strcet, Finsbury.

HISTORY OF MADAGASCAR.

9

example, in travelling from the centre of the island west- ward, after leaving the inhabited parts of Ankova, about a week's journey must be perfonned through a desert, before reaching any villages in the adjoining districts of the Sakalavas. The surface of the country is in general con- siderably diversified, and presents the usual characteristics of primitive, secondary, volcanic, and the other formations associated with these, in different parts of the globe. In this respect the island exhibits a greater resemblance to many portions of South America, or India, than to any equal section of the adjacent continent of Africa. The outlines of its varied features are, however, less bold and stupendous than those of America, and inferior in dimensions to those of the Asiatic or African continents. Many parts, especially on the eastern, northern, and southern borders, may be appropriately denominated mountainous ; but the altitude of the highest mountains is greatly below that of several in islands of less ex- tended boundary in other parts of the torrid zone. The broad extent of table-land in the interior is itself consi- derably elevated ; and from it, Ankaratra and other moun- tains rise, yet the highest are probably not more than 8,000 or 12,000 feet above the level of the sea. Few exact measurements have yet been taken, but from observations made by a common level, and from